Evolutionary Psychology

Assumptions of evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology originated from the Darwinian theory of natural selection. Darwin projected that psychology would later assume an evolutionary dimension through acquisition of different mental capabilities (Buss, 2005). This branch of psychology makes several assumptions in order to explain, diagnose, and treat mental or behavioural illness.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Evolutionary Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More First, it assumes that the brain possesses the ability to process information and thus generate behaviour due to various internal and external stimuli (Buss, 2005). Second, the adaptive capabilities of the brain originated from natural and sexual selection. Sexual selection led to the evolution of adaptations related to mating and reproduction. For males, it helps them compete for females while for females, it helps them to choose appropriate males for the purpose of reproduction. Third, the human evolutionary past was characterized by various neural mechanisms that played different roles such as finding solutions to problems (Buss, 2005). These mechanisms had their origin in natural selection. Fourth, evolutionary psychologists assume that modern humans possess stone-age minds because the evolution of their brains led to the acquisition of different neural mechanisms that were necessary for problem solving (Buss, 2005). Fifth, there is an assumption that most brain processes and functions are executed unconsciously (Buss, 2005). On the other hand, evolutionary psychologists assume that the tasks that humans find easy are not. They only appear easy because they are simplified by the unconscious mind that possesses complex neural mechanisms. Finally, evolutionary psychologists assume that human psychology comprises several specialized mechanisms that respond to different groups of information or stimuli (Buss, 2005). Hum an behaviour is due to the synchronization of the inputs of these different mechanisms. These assumptions form the foundation of evolutionary psychology with regard to explication, diagnosis, and treatment of mental or behavioural illnesses. These assumptions are based on the Darwinian concept of natural selection that was necessary because early humans needed to find solutions to their problems in order to enhance their survival.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Evolutionary psychologists argue that natural selection was responsible for equipping humans with numerous psychological adaptations (Buss, 2005). They argue that this was similar to the mechanism through which humans gained their various anatomical and physiological adaptations. These adaptations are specialized for different environments in which humans live. Examples of mental/ behavioural illness Depression has severe con sequences that affect the survival of human species. For example, it makes people suicidal and less interested in certain activities. However, evolutionary psychologists have a different view of depression. They explain it as a way of developing enhanced mental skills (Trapani, 2010). They argue that depression makes an individual focus on internal and external conflicts, thus improving their decision-making capabilities. When a person is depressed, the brain focuses all its energy and attention on the problem thus enabling the individual to find solutions to the problems (Trapani, 2010). On the other hand, sadness enhances the ability of the brain to process information thus improving its ability to deal with complex and highly demanding situations. Depression also has a biological orientation. Children who come from families with histories of depression are likely to develop depression in the course of their lives. It helps them to adapt to different challenging environments and s ituations. Autism is a condition that alters the ways people communicate and relates to those around them (Ploeger Galis, 2011). People with autism find it difficult to make sense of certain things. Their inability to understand other people’s feelings bar them from forming lasting relationships. Evolutionary psychology would explain autism as a condition that results from delays in male maturation and acceleration in female maturation. Its aetiology can be explained by considering the influence of social structures, endocrinological differences, and neurological limitations (Lehman, 2009). In addition, autism could be explained by considering the influence of social structures and the environment on human maturation. According to the mind blindness theory, changes in social structures cause evolutionary adaptations that lead to development of autism (Ploeger Galis, 2011).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Evolutionary Psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, the emergence of power for women has severe repercussions that include delayed male maturation.Changes in production of human hormones also alter the rate of maturation (Lehman, 2009). For example, changes in uterine testosterone levels affect the maturation rates of offsprings by either accelerating or delaying maturation rate. On the other hand, adjustments in oestrogen levels results in the development of different neurological structures. These factors contribute towards development of autism. Finally, the environment influences the development of autism (Ploeger Galis, 2011). Dyslexia refers to a reading disorder that affects both children and adults. It is characterized by difficulties in spelling and reading (Fletcher, 2009). Evolutionary psychologists would use neuropsychological, behavioural, neurobiological, and environmental factors to explain the causes of the disorder. Environmental factors such as the economic situation and orientation to literacy are possible risk factors for dyslexia (Fletcher, 2009). The disorder is likely to develop in children whose parents possess poor reading skills. Another risk factor is poor classroom instruction. Neurobiological and neuropsychological factors that include finger recognition, audioperceptual processes, visuoperceptual limitations, and directional sense are risk factors of dyslexia (Fletcher, 2009). Dyslexia is thus caused by maldevelopment of the brain’s parietal lobes and other areas that serve different roles. Dyslexia is characterized by reading problems, neuropsychological limitations, clumsiness, and behavioural problems. References Buss, D 2005, The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, John Wiley Sons, New York. Fletcher, J 2009, Dyslexia: The Evolution of a Scientific Concept, Journal of International Neuropsychological Society, vol.15 no. 40, pp. 501.508.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Lehman, A 2009. Autism and Evolution, Viewed on http://www.neoteny.org/2009/12/24/autism-and-evolution/. Ploeger, A Galis, F 2011, Evolutionary Approaches to Autism: an Overview and Integration, McGill Journal of Medicine, vol.13. no. 2, pp. 38. Trapani, G 2010. The Evolutionary Reason for Depression, https://lifehacker.com/the-evolutionary-reason-for-depression-5483797. This essay on Evolutionary Psychology was written and submitted by user Alani Shepherd to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Evolutionary Psychology

Chaining Forward and Chaining Backwards

Chaining Forward and Chaining Backwards When teaching life skills such as dressing, grooming or perhaps even cooking, a special educator often has to break down the task to be taught in small discrete steps. The first step for teaching a life skill is to complete a task analysis. Once the task analysis is complete, the teacher needs to decide how it is to be taught: chaining forward, or chaining backward? Chaining Whenever we do a complete, multistep task, we complete the component parts in a specific order (though there can be some flexibility.) We start at some point and complete each step, one step at a time. Since these tasks are sequential we refer to teaching them step-by-step as chaining. Chaining Forward When chaining forward, the instructional program starts with the beginning of the task sequence. After each step is mastered, instruction begins at the next step. Depending on how severely a students abilities are compromised by their disability will depend on what level of support the student will need for each step of instruction. If a child is unable to learn the step by having it modeled and then imitating it, it may be necessary to provide hand over hand prompting, fading instructional prompting to verbal and then gestural prompts. As each step is mastered, the student completes the step after begin given a verbal command (prompt?) and then begins instruction in the next step. Each time the student has completed the part of the tasks they have he or she has mastered, the instructor will complete the other steps, either modeling or hand over handing the tasks in the order you will be teaching the student. An Example of Chaining Forward Angela is pretty severely cognitively disabled. She is learning life skills with therapeutic support staff (TSS) aid provided by the county mental health organization. Rene (her aide) is working on teaching her independent grooming skills. She can wash her hands independently, with the simple command, Angela, its time to wash your hand. Wash your hands. She has just begun to learn how to brush her teeth. She will follow this forward chain: Angela gets the pink toothbrush from her cup and the toothpaste from the top vanity drawer.When she has mastered this step, she will unscrew the cap, she will wet the bristles and put the paste on the bristles.When she has mastered opening the toothpaste and squirting it on the brush, the child needs to open his, her mouth wide and begin to brush the top teeth. I would divide this into several steps and teach it over a couple of weeks: Up and down on the bottom and top on the side opposite the dominant hand, up and down on the same side, up and down in front and back of the front teeth. Once the whole sequence is mastered, the student can move on to:Rinsing the toothpaste out, front and back. This step will have to be modeled: there is no way to hand over hand this skill.Replace the toothpaste cap, put the cap, brush and rinsing cup away. An Example of Backward Chaining Jonathon, aged 15, lives at a residential facility. One of the goals in his residential IEP is to do his own laundry. In his facility, there is a two to one ratio of staff to students, so Rahul is the evening staff member for Jonathon and Andrew. Andrew is also 15, and also has a laundry goal, so Rahul has Andrew watch as Jonathon does his laundry on Wednesday, and Andrew does his laundry on Friday. Chaining Laundry Backwards Rahul completes each of the steps Jonathon will need to complete the laundry, modeling and reciting each step. i.e. First we separate the colors and the whites.Next we will put the dirty whites in the washing machine.Now we measure the soap (Rahul might choose to have Jonathon open the soap container if twisting off lids is one of Jonathons already acquired skills.)Now we choose the water temperature. Hot for whites, cold for colors.Now we turn the dial to regular wash.Now we close the lid and pull out the dial.Rahul gives Jonathon a couple of choices for waiting: Looking at books? Playing a game on the iPad? He may also stop Jonathon from his game and check out where the machine is in the process.Oh, the machine is done spinning. Lets put the wet clothing in the dryer.Lets set the drying for 60 minutes.(When the buzzer goes off.) Is the laundry dry? Lets feel it? Yes, lets take it out and fold it. At this point, Jonathon would assist in taking the dry laundry out of the dryer. With assistance, he would fold the clothing, matching socks and stacking white underwear and t-shirts in the correct pile s. In backward chaining, Jonathon would observe Rahul do the laundry and would begin by assisting with removing the laundry and folding it. When he has reached an acceptable level of independence (I wouldnt demand perfection) you would back up, and have Jonathon set the dryer and push the start button. After that is mastered, he would back up to removing the wet clothing from the washer and putting it in the dryer. The purpose of backward chaining is the same as that of forward chaining: to help the student gain independence and mastery in a skill that he or she can use for the rest of their life. Whether you, as the practitioner, choose forward or backward chaining will depend on the childs strengths and your perception of where the student will be most successful. His or her success is the real measure of the most effective way to chain, either forward, or backward.

B1- Financial Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

B1- Financial Management - Essay Example If a firm becomes competent to establish this optimal capital structure, then it provides maximum returns to shareholders. In spite of this appeal by Modigliani and Miller, the optimal capital structure has not been found by researchers. This forms the basis of evaluation of the model depicted by Modigliani and Miller (Simerly & Li, 2002). The research paper is based on different arguments related to the approach of Modigliani and Miller with respect to its propositions. Modigliani and Miller have proposed two models in this context where one is with effect of corporate taxes and the other in absence of the corporate taxes. The objective of this paper is to critically evaluate the models and present a critical understanding of the Modigliani and Miller propositions. The paper also deals with the identification of certain critical issues associated with the models and demonstrates the analyses of the issues. The purpose of the paper will be fulfilled by embracing different criticism of the two models and evidences related to their practicability. During the Belgium Tax Reform of 1982, the cost of equity was 13%. The cost of equity was tax deductible at the level of corporate during 1982-1983 for equities that were newly issued. The following consequences of the situation were evaluated that depicted the propositions of MM approach when tax rate was considered: equities were issued in highest quantity during the period 1982-1983 which was more than that during the last 13 years. The Belgian stock market increased by 40% in December 1981. The consequences implies that since expected equity return increases with the amount of borrowing in the presence of corporate taxes, hence people strived towards buying more equity (Rao, 2010). In MM Model of capital structure without taxes, markets are assumed to be perfect that means there are no taxes, no lawyers and no costs of bankruptcy. Now, on condition of market being perfect and efficient, Modigliani